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Adolescent
Stages of Development
Adolescence: The Last Step Before Becoming An Adult
Children must pass
through several stages, or take specific steps, on their road to becoming
adults. For most people, there are four or five such stages of growth
where they learn certain things: infancy (birth to age two), early childhood
(ages 3 to 8 years), later childhood (ages 9 to 12) and adolescence (ages 13
to 18). Persons 18 and over are considered adults in our society. Of course,
there are some who will try to act older than their years. But, for the most
part, most everybody grows in this same pattern. Parents learn much about
taking care of their babies and young children. At the hospital or with the
doctor, you might pick up information about what to feed them or how long
they should sleep. Later, school staff may remind you about the importance
of talking and reading to your young children. You can also see how your
friends or relatives treat their kids. You cannot say the same thing about
learning to talk with teenagers (adolescents). It seems like everyone, even
teachers and neighbors, have problems understanding them. Giving up, you
might turn to doing and saying the same things your parents did with you.
But those were other times!
You can begin to understand this age group if you look at its place on the
growth sequence. Notice how it's right next to the adult stage, the last
step before being an adult. This is a time for adolescents to decide about
their future line of work and think about starting their own families in a
few years. One of the first things they must do is to start making their own
decisions. For example adolescents can begin to decide what to buy with
their own money or who will be their friend. To do this they must put a
little distance between themselves and their parents. This does not mean
that you can't continue to ``look after them'' or help them when needed. You
should, as much as possible, let them learn from the results of their
actions. Adolescents also need to be around other adults, both male and
female. These can be relatives, neighbors, or teachers. Of course, they
should be positive role models. Your teenagers can learn from them about
things like how to fix the car, getting along with others, or ideas for
future jobs. Finally, don't worry if they want to spend time alone.
Adolescents can ``spend hours'' day dreaming about their future life. They
might be planning the things they can do or will buy ``when they grow up.''
Remember, to travel far, one begins with the first few steps!
[Publication Date: 1998
Publisher/Institutional Source: ERIC
Clearinghouse on Rural Education]
by William A.
Borgen and Norman E. Amundson
Overview
Adolescents face a range of
developmental issues. Havighurst (1952) suggested that two
important areas included work and relationships. Levinson
(1978) focused on changing relationships and on exploration,
while Erikson (1968) commented on intimacy and commitment to
goals. Super (1963) indicated that exploring and
crystallizing vocational choice are important to older
adolescents and young adults. What seems evident is that
older adolescents and young adults enter transitions with
the goal of becoming independently functioning adults, as
they strive to meet evolving personal and career related
needs. Rapid and escalating changes in labor market and
post-secondary educational opportunities mean that
adolescents now are confronted with the challenge of meeting
their personal and career needs when neither can offer
certainty or a sense of personal control.
Transition From High School
A longitudinal study by
Amundson, Borgen, and Tench (in press) found that young
people left high school unprepared for current career
realities and that both the career and personal areas of
their lives were in a state of change and uncertainty. At
the end of their final year of high school, young people in
the study expressed optimism about entering the career area
of their choice and they expected to be successful workers
in challenging jobs which offered personal satisfaction.
About half the respondents indicated some concern about
meeting post-secondary entrance standards. Approximately 9
and 18 months following graduation, depression, self-esteem,
and anxiety were correlated with a range of perceived
problems, including money, lack of support from family and
friends, internal attribution of general transition
problems, external attribution of career/employment
difficulties, and lack of job satisfaction.
At the end of the study, some
of the young people were interviewed. They were asked about
factors that helped or hindered the post-high-school
transition. Positive factors included supportive family and
friends, making money, satisfying leisure activities,
personal achievements, and educational success. Negative
factors included relationship problems, career confusion,
financial difficulties, unemployment, lack of satisfying
work, lack of post-secondary educational opportunities, and
difficulty in adjusting to post-secondary educational
demands.
Developmentally, the young
people were trying to meet personal and career-related
needs, which were in a state of flux and uncertainty. It was
apparent that a lack of progress in one area could have a
negative influence on the other (e.g., an inability to gain
post-secondary educational admission or paid work could
drastically alter one's ability to move from being a
dependent adolescent to an independent adult).
An
Expanded View of Career Counseling: Engendering Competence
The above study suggests a
need for a broader view of career counseling; counseling
which recognizes the developmental needs of young people,
the influence of social and economic changes, and the
importance of basing intervention strategies on personal and
career competence, all within a context of diminished and
changing opportunities for choice. In order to address this
broader range of issues, we have employed a competence model
with eight main areas (Amundson, Borgen & Tench, in press):
purpose, problem solving, communication skills, theoretical
knowledge, applied knowledge, organizational adaptability,
human-relations skills, and self-confidence. We also have
developed a number of counseling strategies that facilitate
a smoother transition:
-
Developing Multiple Plans. Many
young people leave high school with a narrow plan of
action and with few alternatives. They fully expect to
be successful with the plan and are not prepared to face
any barriers. Developing flexibility in career planning
requires a sense of purpose, problem solving skills, and
several plans. Helpful strategies include visualization,
lateral thinking, assessing options, and decision making
in a context of uncertainty (Gelatt, 1989).
-
Self-Advocacy and Marketing.
As young people move towards further education, or into
the labor market, it is critical for them to market and
advocate for themselves. With scarce opportunities and
confusing bureaucracies, there is a need to develop
communication skills, self-confidence, organizational
adaptability, and effectiveness in human relations. This
requires activities such as mentoring, role-played
practice, and ongoing economic, emotional, and
informational support.
-
Managing Changing Relationships.
The emotional and social changes adolescents experience
can challenge young people as they try to cope with
barriers in the education system and labor market.
Friends provide emotional support, but this is a time
when friendship patterns are changing. Parents are
needed for emotional, material, and information support,
but, at the same time, they need to allow young people
sufficient room to develop their own sense of identity.
Coping with relationship issues can be facilitated
through communication, human relationship training, and
problem solving, which blurs most of the traditional
distinction between career and personal counseling.
-
Meeting Basic Needs.
Young people have a strong need for community. Other
central needs include having a sense of meaning in life,
physical and emotional security, and basic structure in
relationships and living. As young people mover beyond
high school, many of these basic needs require
revaluation. In addition to changing relationships,
questions emerge as to how to make a living, how to plan
meaningful activities, and how to effectively manage
time. To facilitate these changes, young people need to
establish a sense of purpose and understand how they are
meeting their current and future needs. Counselors can
help clarify these issues. Without this type of
developmental assistance, young people often lack the
resilience to maneuver within increasingly competitive
educational and labor market environments.
-
Coping with Stress.
Adolescence is a period of considerable stress. While
much of the stress can by minimized through support,
persistence, and active decision making and planning,
there still will be times when young people find
themselves in difficult situations. Coping with stress
is associated with various competencies such as
organizational adaptability, human relations, problem
solving, and self-confidence. Particular strategies for
stress management include relaxation techniques,
managing 'self talk,' focusing, and using support
systems.
-
Coping with Loss.
We were surprised at the extent to which young people
were influenced by various personal losses. These losses
involved death in the family (usually grand parents) and
the experience of parental separation and divorce. The
impact of these losses upon career events was
considerable, suggesting a definite need for youth to
develop competence in handling loss and grieving.
Counseling in this domain blurs many of the traditional
distinctions between the personal and career areas.
-
Bridging Programs.
Many young people lack "hands-on" experience as they
attempt to enter the world of work. Many also are
unfamiliar with, and fearful of, moving into
post-secondary education. To address this concern,
counselors need to develop work experience and co-op
education programs to help young people acquire the
necessary experience. Post-secondary education entry
programs can also play an important role in easing
transition difficulties.
-
Information and Information
Access. The
challenge in the information age is not only how to
gather information, but how to turn information into
personally relevant knowledge. Young people need
up-to-date information on careers, education programs,
and market trends. They must also develop skills to
assess the relevance of information. Acquiring these
skills involves both theoretical and applied knowledge.
Counseling strategies within this domain include helping
young people develop research, interviewing, and
critical analysis skills.
Conclusions
The breadth of the above
components suggests that:
- Career counseling needs
to encompass a greater range of issues.
- Personal and career
issues are inextricably intertwined for young people.
- The ways in which young
people make some of their transition experiences greatly
influence their psychological well being.
- Families and friends
form a strong base for support in the transition period.
REFERENCES
Amundson, N. E., Borgen, W.
A., & Tench, E. (in press). "Personality and intelligence in
career education and vocational guidance counseling." In D.
H. Saklofske & M. Zeidner (Eds.) International Handbook
of Personality and Intelligence, New York: Plenum.
Erikson, E. H. (1968).
Identity youth and crisis. New York: W. W. Norton.
Gelatt, H. B. (1989).
"Positive uncertainty: A new decision making framework for
counseling." Journal of Counseling Psychology, 36,
252-256.
Havighurst, R. J. (1952).
Developmental tasks and education. New York: David
McKay.
Levinson, D. (1978). The
seasons of a man's life. New York: Ballantine.
Super, D.
E. (1963). Career development: Essays in vocational
development. New York: College Entrance Examination
Board.
William Borgen and Norm
Amundson are professors in the Department of Counseling
Psychology.
ERIC Digests
are in the public domain and may be freely reproduced and
disseminated. This publication was funded by the U.S.
Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and
Improvement, Contract No. RR93002004. Opinions expressed in
this report do not necessarily reflect the positions of the
U.S. Department of Education, OERI, or ERIC/CASS.
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